Musical Representations of Western Settlement in “The Covered Wagon” (1923)
As the first epic feature-length Western, The Covered Wagon represents a significant shift in perspective from narratives that were at times only marginally related to the West to a stunning reenactment of the crossing of the plains. Hailed by critics as a must-see for all Americans and now viewed by scholars as a reflection of contemporary nationalism and xenophobia, the film was the first to provide a visual spectacle that included real covered wagons, actual Native Americans, and a genuine buffalo hunt.
Technically, we can’t say with any certainty how any silent film was musically accompanied, since every theater had different resources, depending on its size and economic means.
Hugo Riesenfeld (1879-1939), one of the most important composers for silent films and the music director at the Criterion Theater in New York City where The Covered Wagon premiered, had assistants, a large orchestra, and a sizeable music library. Using these, he compiled a complete score for the film that combined existing music with his original compositions. Riesenfeld’s music for The Covered Wagon is one of few extant compiled scores, providing an opportunity to experience how the deluxe theaters accompanied prestige films and, in particular, this significant silent Western.
Theaters without the resources of the Criterion often relied instead on thematic cue sheets or published musical suggestions (as pictured here) that indicated what pieces to play when. These were ordered from the studio or might be distributed with the film. There are two versions of the cue sheet for The Covered Wagon (both created by James C. Bradford) since there was a shorter version of the film released later, the only version of the film available today (on YouTube). Often specifying the same or similar musical accompaniments, these three sources (the two cue sheets and Riesenfeld’s score) offer meaningful insights into the musical landscape of the early Western.
In this essay, I’d like to quickly overview the different types of music that characterize this and other similar silent Westerns. Overall, Riesenfeld’s score worked in tandem with the ambitious visuals to convey the historic significance of this production in its depiction of the American experience, and the cue sheets followed his example. Bradford’s suggestions are modeled on Riesenfeld’s compiled score but include simpler music that might be more accessible to accompanists.
The film opens with Indian-themed music, foreshadowing one of the main narrative lines (the fights with the Pawnee) and establishing the music that will accompany their presence throughout the film. Similar music returns at various points to identify Native American characters aurally, whether they are friendly or otherwise. Most of these pieces are taken from the vast amount of short descriptive musical works known as photoplay music and they feature the distinctive musical clichés associated with Native American film music. These include “Indian Orgy” by Erno Rapee and William Axt, “War Dance” by Charles Sanford Skilton, “Indian Lament” and “Indian War Dance” by Charles K. Herbert, and “Zuni Indian Suite” by Homer Grunn.
Here is one example of how Riesenfeld tailored his music to create a more nuanced interpretation of the narrative. Near the beginning of the film, the Indians [tribal name unknown] are cast as a threat to westward expansion with a neat crosscut that fades from two settlers admiring a plow, anxious to get it started on Oregon soil, to Indians cursing a similar plow left behind on the same trail.
Not surprisingly, both of Bradford’s cue sheets suggest that “Dagger Dance” from the opera Natoma by Victor Herbert be played when the Indians appear. [This recording is of Alfonso D’Artega and His Orchestra.]
Instead of adopting a pre-existing similarly stereotypical piece, Riesenfeld accompanies the visual of the Indians with an original melody. It is slower and more somber, suggesting empathy rather than aurally positioning them as a threat.
Nation-building Westerns, like The Covered Wagon, often began with a patriotic opening, while hymns, simple tunes or parlor songs added dimension to the settlers. Dedicated to the memory of President Theodore Roosevelt and capitalizing on the former president’s popularity and love of the West to promote the film, all three of the music sources begin with a statement of “My Country ’Tis of Thee” during the dedication intertitle.
Hymns were typically utilized to accompany religious or spiritual scenes. In The Covered Wagon, “Lead Kindly Light” was utilized to accompany the funeral of one of the settlers in Riesenfeld’s score and it was suggested in both of Bradford’s cue sheets. Ideally it would have been performed on a violin to match the visual.
Parlor songs were often adapted to provide musical love themes. This scene of Molly and Banion with the little girl is accompanied by George Linley’s sentimental ballad “I’ve Left the Snow-Clad Hills” (1847), a song made popular by famous singer Jenny Lind. This melody recurs throughout Riesenfeld’s score to characterize Molly. The lyrics of Linley’s song relate the performer’s feelings about leaving her “father’s hut” in Dalkarlia, Sweden, reflecting both sentimental feelings about leaving one’s native land (as the settlers are doing in the wagon train) and also Molly’s expectation of leaving her parents’ home (or wagon, as the case may be) via her impending marriage to Woodhull. [Also, how creepy is the face on that doll?]
Bradford’s cue sheets call for “Cradle Song” (1890) by Edward MacDowell (1860-1908). It is questionable whether an accompanist would actually perform the entire piece (or as well as in this recording, played exquisitely by Jeffrey Wagner). However, MacDowell’s composition nicely fits the overall scene, highlighting the importance of the children in the wagon train emphasized at this point, not only by the child with the doll, but also by the cutaway scenes with the baby.
To bring the score together and to enhance the film’s epic tone, Riesenfeld composed a signature tune, “Westward Ho” or “The Covered Wagon March,” specifically for the film. The intrepid nature of the pioneers is evoked by this melody, and it is played to announce the start of the journey as the wagon train starts to roll out, as well as other impressive views during their journey. Erno Rapée’s score for John Ford’s The Iron Horse (1924) also includes an original signature work, “The Iron Horse March,” which recurs often during the progress of that narrative. These musical touches distinguished the epic silent Western and set the tone for future soundtracks.
Riesenfeld’s “Westward Ho!” was suggested in both of Bradford’s cue sheets and it quickly entered into the repertoire of accompaniment for Western films. It became associated with westward expansion, often used to accompany wagon trains or homesteaders on the plains. Notably, it appears in cue sheets for most of the epic Westerns produced in the mid-1920s, including North of ‘36 (1924), The Pony Express (1925), Tumbleweeds (1925), and The Last Frontier (1926).
[This recording of “Westward Ho!” is from a player piano roll and features a lot of variations and embellishments to Riesenfeld’s melody. Thanks to Jack Theakston [https://youtu.be/z_G-SFJuS54] for posting this recording.]
As the most familiar anthem of westward expansion, “Oh! Susanna” is heard prominently throughout the film, providing an historic authenticity to The Covered Wagon that was heretofore unknown in Western films. First published in 1848, this song spread rapidly from its source in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, home of composer Stephen Foster, to California via a variety of networks and with an assortment of lyrics. Cruze introduces the song in the opening scene of The Covered Wagon, showing a young boy singing and playing the banjo. The visual of the sheet music leaves no doubt as to what song is being performed.
Although Cruze was guided by Emerson Hough’s novel (which often mentions “Oh! Susanna”), subsequent film directors would similarly insert songs that were factually connected to the era and the narrative, as Ford did with “Drill, Ye Tarriers, Drill” in The Iron Horse. This practice of “direct cueing” involved presenting the song lyrics in the intertitle and, in some instances, having the characters sing and, as in this case, perform on an instrument, thus making the song an integral part of the film’s narrative.
The music that accompanies the celebratory moments, as well as the comic antics of the scout (Jackson) and fur trader (Jim Bridger) is primarily bits of photoplay music that were intended to evoke the South or rather a minstrelized version of it. Some examples referenced for The Covered Wagon include “Sounds from the Sunny South” by Adolphe Dumont, “Ole South” by J. S. Zamecnik or the traditional fiddle tune “Arkansas Traveler.”
In all three of the musical sources for this film, Zamecnik’s “Ole Virginny” (1916) accompanies Jackson’s drunken shooting scene with Bridger. It is characterized by lots of syncopation in a ragtime style, while its upbeat melody evokes a comic feeling that complements their drunken shooting game. (Thanks to RagtimeDorianHenry for posting this great recording!)
In his score, Riesenfeld indicated that the entire piece (which he notated completely) should be played twice with all the repeats. I suspect that this scene was edited, so this version does not quite require two complete performances of the work. Silly, usually ridiculous, comic scenes like this appear often in Westerns during this period. I have not done extensive research on this, but I suspect they were intended to offer some relief from the drama or just to make the movie more appealing to audiences. (Yeah, that’s all I’ve got.)
Like most arrangers for silent film accompaniments, Riesenfeld selected works from the classical canon to provide atmospheric music or dramatic intensity to narrative lines. Some of the works adapted for The Covered Wagon include “Peace of the Forest” by Edvard Grieg, the “Unfinished” Symphony by Schubert, and Edward Elgar’s “Pomp and Circumstance,” among others.
Riesenfeld’s choice of Massenet’s “Scene Alsaciennes, No. 1,” provides a fitting pastoral tone as the visual offers a shot of Westport Landing (today’s Kansas City). The resulting soundscape is peaceful and reflects the hopeful tone of the settlers, as they get ready to set out. Riesenfeld anticipates later Western scores with his presentation of the landscape, arguably the most important feature of these outdoor dramas.
Riesenfeld liked Massenet’s composition so much that he included a fairly long portion of this work in his score and referenced it again to introduce Jesse Wingate, the leader of the wagon train. Unfortunately, in this edited version of the film the scene of the boy playing the banjo was relocated to earlier in the film and other bits were taken out, including Wingate’s introduction, so it is difficult to recreate Riesenfeld’s conception faithfully. Bradford also suggests the Massenet for this shot of Westport in both of his cue sheets.
Riesenfeld skillfully adapts Rachmaninoff’s “Prelude” in G minor, another classical work, for especially dramatic moments. In addition to partial hearings at other moments in the film, he adopts the entire work during the lengthy scene where Banion decides to leave the wagon train for California to pan gold, while crosscuts show Woodhull pressing Molly (who still longs for Banion) about their marriage.
Although it is impossible to exactly recreate Riesenfeld’s conception due to edits made in the film, notations in his score indicate that he timed the work so that the slow section of the “Prelude” coincides with Jackson’s entrance followed by the dialogue between Molly and Woodhull, including his accusation, “You’re still thinking of Banion!” It is significant that all three of the musical sources for The Covered Wagon call for the “Prelude” during this scene, although the less capable musicians in the smaller theaters may not have performed the entire work.
As with the musical selections for the Indians, the prolific use of photoplay music drives much of the action in the film in all three sources for The Covered Wagon. Generically titled “hurry,” “misterioso,” “agitato,” or “furioso,” to name just a few examples, these short works feature repetitive melodies and simple structures that can be extended to fit any scene.
Rapée-Axt’s “Misterioso No. 1” provides an ideal example of how photoplay music accompanies action, but also enhances the narrative. This composition is referenced in all three sources when Jackson first meets wagonmaster Jesse Wingate, looking him over disdainfully and suggesting that the wagon train would be better off with Banion leading it.
Bradford only includes this single suggestion of the “Misterioso” in the cue sheets, yet in Riesenfeld’s score, it returns several times reflecting the difficulties experienced by the wagon train and in each instance the musical statement recalls Jackson’s original assessment of Wingate, regardless of the actual causes for the disbanding of the train. (The scenes with Molly and the baby are confusing in this clip. The music would not be appropriate for these domestic scenes, but the music played is exactly as Riesenfeld wrote it and it syncs up with his references to the intertitles. I can only suspect that some editing may have changed the series of events here.)
Conclusion
At a time when Westerns were not always situated in the historic West, Cruze’s The Covered Wagon was momentous in its relatively realistic presentation of a bygone era. Its musical accompaniment inspired subsequent nation-building Westerns, like Ford’s The Iron Horse and Cruze’s The Pony Express (1925), which includes several selections that were featured in The Covered Wagon. It was also precursor to later wagon train narratives, such as The Big Trail (Walsh, 1930) and Red River (Hawks, 1948). The manner in which the music represents the characters and dramatic situations established a prototype for future Westerns that would continue during the height of the genre’s popularity.
For more detail about this film and its musical sources, check out my article, “Hugo Riesenfeld’s Compiled Score for The Covered Wagon (1923),” American Music 36:1 (Spring 2018), 70-101.